discussions of perennial concerns of political philosophy: the role of –––, “Aristotle and Business: Friend or Aristotle therefore spends a great deal of time discussing these two regimes and the problem of political instability, and we will focus on this problem as well. analyzes arguments for and against the different constitutions as The good citizen today is asked to follow the laws, pay taxes, and possibly serve on juries; these are all good things the good man (or woman) would do, so that the good citizen is seen as being more or less subsumed into the category of the good person. the same end (Pol. Aristotle also reminds us of the importance of the middling element for maintaining the regime and making it long-lasting; instead of hostility between the oligarchs and democrats, whichever group has power should be certain always to behave benevolently and justly to the other group (1309b18). There is certainly no evidence that Alexander’s subsequent career was much influenced by Aristotle’s teaching, which is uniformly critical of war and conquest as goals for human beings and which praises the intellectual, contemplative lifestyle. Aristotle If you were to fully describe an acorn, you would include in your description that it will become an oak tree in the natural course of things – so acorns too have a telos. For a further Sinclair, T. A., revised by Trevor J. Saunders, Harmondsworth: Met. The distinction between correct and deviant constitutions is combined This entry is concerned with practical knowledge, which is the knowledge of how to live and act. If the oligarchs’ claim seems ridiculous, you should keep in mind that the American colonies had property qualifications for voting; those who could not prove a certain level of wealth were not allowed to vote. Miller, Fred D., Jr., “Aristotle: Naturalism,” in just claims to shares of some common asset such as property. ), Muzio, G. D., “Aristotle on Improving One's Character,”. Almost immediately after this typology is created, Aristotle clarifies it: the real distinction between oligarchy and democracy is in fact the distinction between whether the wealthy or the poor rule (1279b39), not whether the many or the few rule. The proper education must be instilled from the earliest stages of life, and even before; Aristotle tells us the ages that are appropriate for marriage (37 for men, 18 for women) in order to bring about children of the finest quality, and insists on the importance of a healthful regimen for pregnant women, specifying that they take sufficient food and remain physically active. Such leaders will harass the property owners, causing them to unify against the democracy, and they will also stir up the poor against the rich in order to maintain themselves in power. There should be no private families and no private property. It is impossible to act nobly without acting [to achieve] noble things; but there is no noble deed either of a man or of a city that is separate from virtue and prudence. This This is also one reason why many students have difficulty reading his work: no teacher’s lecture notes ever make complete sense to anyone else (their meaning can even elude their author at times). Galston and Martha C. Nussbaum), libertarians (such as Tibor R. Of course, they do not need this ability. Far from debasing the emotions, as Plato thought, drama has a beneficial effect on them. In Greece in Aristotle’s time the important political entities were cities, which controlled surrounding territories that were farmed. Aristotle does not think this percentage should be increased – if anything, it should be decreased. Constitution,” in Georgios Anagnostopoulos (ed.). whereas those which aim only at the advantage of the rulers are What is it that human beings are meant by nature to become in the way that knives are meant to cut, acorns are meant to become oak trees, and thoroughbred ponies are meant to become race horses? science, household management, and rhetoric — fall under its ), Vander Waert, Paul A., “Kingship and Philosophy in necessary, and to prevent developments which might subvert the We must figure out how to live together for ourselves through the use of reason and speech, discovering justice and creating laws that make it possible for human community to survive and for the individuals in it to live virtuous lives. to be the [best] possible under existing circumstances, but to be a

To convey this, some translations use the word “city-state” in place of the world “polis.” Although none of us today lives in a polis , we should not be too quick to dismiss Aristotle’s observations on the way of life of the polis as irrelevant to our own political partnerships.

But perhaps what he meant was that watching tragedy helps people to put their own sorrows and worries in perspective, because in it they observe how catastrophe can overtake even people who are vastly their superiors. According to the theory of Forms, material objects are imperfect copies of original, real, Forms; artistic representations of material objects are therefore only copies of copies, at two removes from reality. I.2.1252b27”, for example, refers The translation is that of Martin Ostwald; see the bibliography for full information. In many cases he is setting out an argument in order to challenge it. human nature, and it neglects the happiness of the individual citizens Depew, David J., “Politics, Music, and Contemplation in III.11.1281a39-42). document: Political science studies the tasks of the politician or statesman But Aristotle also allows that it might be own in Politics VII and VIII.

Roberts, Jean, “Excellences of the Citizen and of the for the slave (III.6.1278b32–7). Whether this makes Aristotle’s position on slavery more acceptable or less so is left to the reader to decide.
This, for most contemporary readers is one of the two most offensive portions of Aristotle’s moral and political thought (the other is his treatment of women, about which more will be said below). scientist] ought to be able to study a given constitution, both how it Aristotle also knew Philip of Macedon (son of Amyntas III) and there is a tradition that says Aristotle tutored Philip’s son Alexander, who would later be called “the Great” after expanding the Macedonian Empire all the way to what is now India. The most important text for understanding Aristotle’s political philosophy, not surprisingly, is the Politics. deliberative or judicial office (1275b18–21). And even if there is no external surplus, “[N]otables who are refined and sensible will divide the poor among themselves and provide them with a start in pursuing some work” (1320b8). “b”) on each page. By “authority over the audits” Aristotle refers to an institution which provided that those who held office had to provide an accounting of their activities at regular intervals: where the city’s funds came from, where they went, what actions they took, and so forth. However, it is also important to read Nicomachean Ethics in order to fully understand Aristotle’s political project. entry on Georgiadis, Constantine, “Equitable and Equity in One general point that Aristotle makes when considering existing regimes is that when considering whether a particular piece of legislation is good or not, it must be compared not only to the best possible set of arrangements but also the set of arrangements that actually prevails in the city. Here Aristotle is introducing another important idea which he will develop later: the idea that the people living under a regime, including the women and children, must be taught to believe in the principles that underlie that regime. systems.
baser sort.” Hence, Aristotelian political science is not

III. However, keep in mind that Aristotle believes that human life has a telos and that the political community should provide education and laws that will lead to people pursuing and achieving this telos. For many if not most people in such societies, the pursuit of wealth without limit is seen as not only acceptable but even admirable. However, despite the necessary attention to military issues, when we consider the ideal city, the principles which we have already elaborated about the nature of the citizens remain central. Aristotle explores the implications of this argument in the remainder Therefore there will also be the need for people to do these tasks. In this way, both groups will serve on juries and power will be shared. However, poverty is a genuine problem in a democracy: “[O]ne who is genuinely of the popular sort (i.e. Aristotle turns to this question in Chapter 2. It Good citizens must have the type of virtue that preserves the partnership and the regime: “[A]lthough citizens are dissimilar, preservation of the partnership is their task, and the regime is [this] partnership; hence the virtue of the citizen must necessarily be with a view to the regime. Though not a directly political statement, it does emphasize Aristotle’s belief that there are many hierarchies in nature, as well as his belief that those who are lower in the natural hierarchy should be under the command of those who are higher. In Chapter 11, Aristotle notes that there is a lot more to be said about enterprise in business, but “to spend much time on such things is crude” (1258b35).

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